Lot NdamanomhataÂ
The artificial borders imposed by colonial powers during the Scramble for Africa have had profound and lasting effects on African states. The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) formalized the division of Africa among European colonial powers, often disregarding pre-existing ethnic, cultural, and political entities (Herbst, 2000). These arbitrary borders have led to fragmented communities, cross-border tensions, and challenges in governance. This article examines the effects of colonial borders on the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Rwanda, Kenya and Tanzania, and South Africa and Zimbabwe, highlighting the socio-political challenges that have emerged post-independence. Furthermore, the article explores international comparisons and potential solutions for fostering peaceful coexistence.
The Case of the DRC and Rwanda: A Border Drawn by Belgium and Germany
The border between the DRC and Rwanda is one of the most contested in Africa. Before colonial rule, the region was home to the Kingdom of Rwanda, which extended into parts of what is now the DRC. However, Belgium and Germany, as colonial rulers of the DRC and Rwanda respectively, established an artificial boundary that separated communities that had historically lived as one (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2002).
This division had significant consequences:
1. Ethnic Fragmentation and Conflict: The border left Rwandan communities, including the Hutu and Tutsi, split between two nations. Following Rwanda’s independence and subsequent conflicts, many Rwandans, particularly Tutsis, sought refuge in the DRC, leading to tensions between Congolese communities and Rwandan migrants (Prunier, 2009). The long-standing ethnic conflict between Hutus and Tutsis has had spillover effects into the DRC, contributing to the First and Second Congo Wars (1996–1997, 1998–2003).
2. Cross-Border Militancy: The artificial nature of the border has facilitated the movement of militias between Rwanda and the DRC. Groups such as the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (FDLR) operate in eastern Congo, exacerbating instability (Stearns, 2011).
3. Disputed Citizenship: Many individuals of Rwandan descent living in the DRC struggle with issues of nationality and are often viewed as foreigners despite generations of residence in Congo.
The border conflict between the DRC and Rwanda exemplifies the broader consequences of colonial boundary-making: displacement, contested identities, and ongoing security dilemmas.
Kenya and Tanzania: A More Peaceful Coexistence
The Kenya-Tanzania border, drawn by British and German colonial rulers, separated communities such as the Maasai, who historically moved freely between the two territories. Unlike the DRC-Rwanda case, Kenya and Tanzania have managed to maintain relatively peaceful relations, despite the arbitrary nature of their borders (Englebert, 2009).
Factors contributing to their stability include:
1. Strong Diplomatic Relations: Both countries have been part of the East African Community (EAC), facilitating cross-border trade and movement.
2. Dual Citizenship and Rights for Cross-Border Communities: The Maasai people, despite being split between the two nations, retain access to their traditional lands and are allowed to move freely with their cattle.
3. Economic Integration: The economic cooperation between Kenya and Tanzania, particularly through the EAC, has helped mitigate border disputes and tensions.
South Africa and Zimbabwe: A Case of Migration and Identity Challenges
South Africa and Zimbabwe share a border shaped by British colonial rule, which divided ethnic groups such as the Venda and Ndebele. This division has led to significant migration between the two countries, particularly Zimbabwean migration to South Africa due to economic and political instability (Crush & Tevera, 2010).
The challenges faced include:
1. Xenophobia: Many Zimbabwean migrants in South Africa face hostility, as seen in periodic outbreaks of xenophobic violence. South Africans often view Zimbabweans as economic competitors rather than historical kin.
2. Legal and Citizenship Issues: Zimbabweans who have lived in South Africa for decades often struggle to obtain legal status, despite deep historical ties.
3. Labour Migration: Economic disparities between the two countries have created an unequal dependency, with Zimbabweans often taking up low-wage jobs in South Africa.
Despite these tensions, the two nations have maintained diplomatic relations, and South Africa has played a key role in Zimbabwean political mediation efforts.
The Need to Respect Artificial Borders Despite Their Problems
While colonial borders are artificial and often problematic, African states are bound by the African Union (AU) Charter on Governance and Non-Interference, which emphasizes respect for existing borders to prevent further fragmentation and conflict (AU, 2007).
Key reasons why these borders must be respected:
1. Preventing Further Conflicts: Re-drawing borders to align with ethnic groups would create endless disputes and wars, as seen in attempts to change borders in Sudan and Eritrea.
2. State Sovereignty: The principle of non-interference ensures that governments respect each other’s territorial integrity.
3. Inclusivity and Representation: Rather than altering borders, governments should work towards policies that include all ethnic groups within their existing territories.
Governments must ensure that ethnic minorities are not marginalised simply because they are part of a group with a larger presence in a neighbouring country.
Lessons from Other Continents
Artificial borders have caused conflicts beyond Africa. Some examples include:
• The Middle East: The Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) divided the Arab world arbitrarily, contributing to conflicts in Iraq and Syria (Gelvin, 2018).
• South Asia: The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 created long-lasting tensions, particularly in Kashmir. However, agreements such as the Indus Waters Treaty have helped manage some disputes.
• Europe: The dissolution of Yugoslavia in the 1990s led to ethnic conflicts, but the European Union’s open-border policies have since facilitated peace and coexistence.
How These Conflicts Were Resolved
1. Regional Cooperation: The European Union (EU) allows for cross-border movement, reducing tensions over ethnic divisions.
2. Legal Frameworks for Minority Rights: Countries such as Canada and Belgium have recognised linguistic and cultural rights to prevent ethnic marginalisation.
3. Economic Integration: The EU model has shown that economic partnerships can help de-escalate tensions between fragmented communities.
Potential Solutions for Africa
To address the tensions created by artificial borders, African states should:
• Enhance Regional Integration: The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) can help reduce border-related tensions by fostering economic interdependence.
• Establish Legal Protections for Cross-Border Communities: Allowing dual citizenship or special residency rights can help reduce disputes.
• Promote Cultural Inclusion: Governments must ensure that ethnic minorities feel represented within national identities rather than excluded.
Conclusion
Colonial borders have left Africa with deeply embedded challenges, splitting communities and fostering conflicts. The cases of the DRC-Rwanda, Kenya-Tanzania, and South Africa-Zimbabwe highlight both the dangers and the potential for peaceful coexistence. While artificial, these borders must be respected under AU principles to prevent further instability. However, African governments must work towards inclusive governance that recognises and accommodates the continent’s diverse ethnic landscape. Lessons from other regions, particularly Europe and South Asia, demonstrate that economic cooperation, legal frameworks, and cultural recognition can mitigate the effects of colonial-era divisions and pave the way for long-term stability.
Lot Ndamanomhata is graduate of Public Management, Journalism and Communication. This article reflects his views and write entirely in his personal capacity.
References
African Union. (2007). African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Crush, J., & Tevera, D. (2010). Zimbabwe’s Exodus: Crisis, Migration, Survival. African Books Collective.
Englebert, P. (2009). Africa: Unity, Sovereignty, and Sorrow. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Gelvin, J. (2018). The Modern Middle East: A History. Oxford University Press.
Herbst, J. (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton University Press.
Nzongola-Ntalaja, G. (2002). The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila. Zed Books.
Prunier, G. (2009). Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford University Press.
Stearns, J. K. (2011). Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa. PublicAffairs.
